ADDRESSING TOXIC RACISM: BILL C-226 AND INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES’ DISPROPORTIONATE EXPOSURE TO “FOREVER CHEMICALS”
This blog was written by Lily Farinaccio as part of the Community Research Partnerships in Ethics (TRN407Y1) between Trinity College at the University of Toronto and WHEN under the supervision of Professor Nicole Spiegelaar. For the purposes of this blog post, the term “women” is used to describe those with ovarian reproductive systems. This is not to marginalize bodies that identify as women and do not possess these reproductive systems. Rather, it is intended to highlight how these chemicals differentially interact with certain bodies, creating sex-specific consequences.
Indigenous communities – particularly Indigenous women – face a disproportionate risk of exposure to “forever chemicals” and their health effects. Proposed Bill C-226 offers an important start to tackling cases of environmental racism such as this, but what is needed for its effective implementation?
WHAT IS ENVIRONMENTAL RACISM?
Environmental racism is a form of inequality whereby racialized communities are disproportionately impacted by polluting industries, toxins, and associated health conditions (Waldron, 2018). There are many instances of environmental racism in Canada. One example is the disproportionate exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), or forever chemicals, faced by Indigenous peoples.
WHAT ARE PFAS?
PFAS are a group of thousands of synthetic chemicals with grease, heat, and water-resistant properties (Park et al., 2019). They’re used in various industrial applications and consumer products, including non-stick cookware, carpeting, apparel, upholstery, food packaging, firefighting foams, and personal care products (Park et al., 2019; Person and Renfrew, 2024).
From an environmental health perspective, PFAS are strikingly troublesome. They resist natural processes of degradation and are persistent in the environment and the human body, earning the name forever chemicals (Garcia-Barrios, 2021). They’re also associated with a wide range of health effects, including:
Endocrine, liver, and immunological effects
Thyroid disease
Cancers
Developmental issues
Decreased fertility
Asthma
Decreased vaccine response
Pregnancy-induced hypertension
Hypercholesterolemia
(CELA, 2021; Pearson and Renfrew, 2024)
HOW ARE INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES DISPROPORTIONATELY AFFECTED?
While all Canadians are routinely exposed to PFAS, several studies have found elevated levels among Indigenous communities (Aker et al., 2023; Caron-Beaudoin et al., 2020; Caron-Beaudoin et al., 2019; Dubeau et al., 2022; Garcia-Barrios et al., 2021). For example, a recent study on First Nations communities in Québec found that concentrations of the forever chemical, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFNA), were 21 times higher than levels in the general Canadian population (Dubeau et al., 2022).
There are a number of potential reasons for these increased PFAS levels. Notably, the consumption of traditional foods such as fish and caribou has been highlighted as a primary exposure pathway for Indigenous communities. This is due to forever chemicals’ ability to bioaccumulate in marine and terrestrial food webs (Aker et al., 2023).
Given that the consumption of traditional foods has been described as one of the strongest links between Indigenous culture, health, and their environments, the presence of PFAS in traditional food sources is significant: it forces Indigenous communities to make trade-offs between their culture and health. Not only are PFAS harming Indigenous bodies, they’re also forcing Indigenous peoples further from their culture.
WHAT ARE THE SPECIFIC EFFECTS ON INDIGENOUS WOMEN?
Forever chemicals are associated with sex-specific health effects. These include fertility complications, such as endometriosis, PCOS, and decreased fertility, as well as the development of melanoma and breast cancer (Cathey et al., 2023; Kim et al., 2020; Mancini et al., 2020; Omoike et al., 2021; Tsai et al., 2015). Given that Indigenous women are at increased risk of exposure to PFAS, they’re at even greater risk of suffering these severe and potentially lethal consequences.
Indigenous women also bear a disproportionate burden in managing the transmission of PFAS and the related health problems. Mothers can transfer around 40% or more of their PFAS body burden to their infants. Forever chemicals can also be transmitted to children during breastfeeding (Rickard et al., 2022). What’s more, the presence and transmission of PFAS during pregnancy and infancy are associated with various health impacts in children, including suppressed immune responses during childhood, low infant birth weights, and neurotoxic outcomes, such as decreased executive function and lower verbal IQ (Caron-Beaudoin et al., 2020; Rickard et al., 2022).
WHAT IS BILL C-226?
Bill C-226: An Act Respecting the Development of a National Strategy to Assess, Prevent, and Address Environmental Racism and to Advance Environmental Justice – introduced by Green Party MP Elizabeth May in February 2022 – is legislation targeted at addressing and preventing the unequal environmental harms racialized individuals currently face in Canada. As of October 2023, the bill completed its second reading in the Senate. Once it passes its third reading, it will require the federal government to create a national strategy to address environmental racism. The strategy would include a study investigating the links between race, socioeconomic status, and environmental risk, as well as possible measures to both prevent and address environmental racism. The bill also features a section on consultation, emphasizing that, in formulating the strategy, the Minister of Environment must consult with relevant stakeholders, including Indigenous peoples (Bill C-226).
Bill C-226 marks an important step towards addressing environmental injustices that cause severe harm among racialized communities across Canada, such as the disproportionate PFAS exposure faced by Indigenous peoples and Indigenous women. Looking forward, it is crucial we think about how it can be implemented effectively. To learn more about WHEN’s recommendations pertaining to the National Strategy, we encourage you to review our submission to the Senate Committee on Energy, the Environment and Natural Resources.
HOW CAN WE EFFECTIVELY IMPLEMENT IT?
MEANINGFUL INDIGENOUS INVOLVEMENT
To ensure Bill C-226’s efficacy, the involvement of Indigenous communities can’t be performative. When Indigenous peoples aren’t meaningfully involved in decision-making processes, it results in solutions imposed by outsiders that are both inappropriate for and unwelcomed by the community (Black and McBean, 2016).
Three ways to foster meaningful engagement of Indigenous communities in Bill C-226’s implementation are to:
Address the power dynamics in policy making
In policy, there’s an inherent power differential between the Canadian government and Indigenous communities. Indigenous peoples are often one of the only Indigenous individuals in the room, working within a colonial government system (Fridkin et al., 2019). When applying Bill C-226, there’s a need to address the power imbalances between the Canadian government and Indigenous communities.
Move beyond tokenism
Within Canadian policy making, there’s a tendency for Indigenous communities to be involved in tokenistic ways (Fridkin et al., 2019). Meaningful Indigenous involvement in the implementation of Bill C-226 requires moving beyond tokenism and fostering engagement that’s Indigenous-led.
Incorporate traditional knowledge
Research shows that when traditional knowledge is included in policy development and implementation, it allows for Indigenous participation in decision-making, recognizes the inherent rights of Indigenous peoples, and helps move towards self-determination (Black and McBean, 2016). Traditional knowledge can be used alongside data collection in developing the national strategy, based on what Indigenous peoples consider appropriate.
CONSIDERING INTERSECTING IDENTITY FACTORS
In addition to the meaningful involvement of Indigenous communities, Bill C-226 must also consider the impacts of various identity factors, such as sex and gender. These factors intersect with experiences of environmental racism, as highlighted with the case of PFAS exposure among Indigenous women. Because a singular approach doesn’t take into account the disproportionate harm faced by certain individuals, it will limit Bill C-226’s ability to fully address environmental racism.
This can be avoided by applying Gender-Based Analysis Plus (GBA+). GBA+ is a framework used by the Canadian government to understand the potential impacts of a government initiative on a diverse range of individuals by taking sex, gender, age, disability, education, etc. into account (Acharya-Patel, 2022; Women and Gender Equality Canada, 2022). Using GBA+ when implementing Bill C-226 will make sure the national strategy doesn’t neglect how identity factors such as sex complicate experiences of environmental racism. Given the potential of Bill C-226, these recommendations are important to consider as it advances through the legislature.
Read the full report here.
WHAT YOU CAN DO
Sign this petition to get Bill C-226 passed: https://davidsuzuki.org/action/support-a-canadian-environmental-justice-law/
Sign this petition to demand a comprehensive ban on PFAS: https://act.environmentaldefence.ca/page/129061/action/1?ea.tracking.id=homepage
Raise awareness: Share this post and tell your friends and families about Bill C-226, environmental racism, and PFAS exposure among Indigenous communities. Knowledge is power!
References
Acharya-Patel. (2022). Gender-Based Analysis Plus: A Framework for Implementing CEPA
Commitments to Vulnerable Populations. Women’s Healthy Environments Network.
Aker, Amira, et al. (2023). Plasma concentrations of perfluoroalkyl acids and their
determinants in youth and adults from Nunavik, Canada. Chemosphere, 310.
Bill C-226, An Act Respecting the Development of a National Strategy to Assess, Prevent,
and Address Environmental Racism and to Advance Environmental Justice, Second Reading, February 2, 2022, 44th Parliament, 1st session. Retrieved from the Parliament of Canada website: https://www.parl.ca/legisinfo/en/bill/44-1/c-226.
Black, Kerry, and McBean, Edward. (2016). Increased Indigenous Participation in
Environmental Decision-Making: A Policy Analysis for the Improvement of Indigenous Health. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 7(4).
Canadian Environmental Law Association (CELA). (2021). It’s Raining ‘Forever Chemicals’
Across the Great Lakes: Why PFAS Is Now a Public Priority for Elimination Across Canada. Canadian Environmental Law Association.
Caron-Beaudoin, Élyse, et al. (2020). Perfluoralkyl acids in pregnant women from Nunavik
(Québec, Canada): Trends in exposure and associations with country foods consumption. Environment International, 145.
Caron-Beaudoin, Élyse, et al. (2019). Exposure to perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and
associations with thyroid parameters in First Nation children and youth from Quebec. Environmental International, 12, 13–23.
Cathey, Amber, et al. (2023). Exploratory profiles of phenols, parabens, and per- and poly-
fluoroalkyl substances among NHANES study participants in association with previous cancer diagnoses. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology, 33, 687–698.
Dubeau, Claudelle, et al. (2022). Perfluoroalkyl acid and bisphenol-A exposure via food
sources in four First Nation communities in Québec, Canada. Public Health Nutrition, 29(1), 106–121.
Fridkin, Alycia, et al. (2019). The RIPPLES of Meaningful Involvement: A Framework for
Meaningfully Involving Indigenous Peoples in Health Policy Decision-Making. The International Indigenous Policy Journal, 10(3).
Garcia-Barrios, Joshua, et al. (2021). Biomarkers of poly-and perfluoroalkyl substances
(PFAS) in Sub-Arctic and Arctic communities in Canada. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 235, 1–9.
Kim, Young Ran, et al. (2020). Per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in follicular fluid
from women experiencing infertility in Australia. Environmental Research, 190.
Mancini, Francesca, et al. (2020). Perfluorinated alkylated substances serum concentration
and breast cancer risk: Evidence from a nested case-control in the French E3N cohort. International Journal of Cancer, 146, 917–928.
Omoike, Ogbebor, et al. (2021). A cross-sectional study of the association between
perfluorinated chemical exposure and cancers related to deregulation of estrogen receptors. Environmental Research, 196.
Park, Kyun et al. (2019). Determinants of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in
midlife women: Evidence of racial/ethnic and geographic differences in PFAS exposure. Environmental Research, 175, 186–199.
Pearson, Thomas, and Renfrew, Daniel. (2024). When Toxic Heritage Is Forever:
Confronting PFAS Contamination and Toxicity as Lived Experience. In Elizabeth Kryder-Reid & Sarah May, Toxic Heritage: Legacies, Futures, and Environmental Injustice (pp. 50-61). Routledge.
Tsai, Meng-Shen, et al. (2015). Association between perfluoroalkyl substances and
reproductive hormones in adolescents and young adults. International Journal of Environmental Health, 218(5), 437–443.
Waldron, Ingrid. (2018). There’s Something in the Water: Environmental Racism in
Indigenous and Black Communities. Fernwood Publishing.
Women and Gender Equality Canada. (2022). Government of Canada’s Approach on
Gender-Based Analysis Plus. Government of Canada. https://www.canada.ca/en/women-gender-equality/gender-based-analysis-plus/government-approach.html.